In what ways and to what extent do international schools provide an internationa
2015年5月16日 11:00 作者:Liu XiIn what ways and to what extent do international schools provide an international and intercultural education?
Liu Xi
（ Durham University, Durham，United Kingdom, DH1 1TA）
Introduction
The concepts of ‘international schools’ and ‘international education’ have been discussed frequently throughout the past fifty years, a period which has witnessed particularly rapid developments and increasing diversity in the approaches to both fields (Hayden & Thompson, 1995). This essay explores what international schools can provide in terms of ‘international’ and ‘intercultural’ education. The investigation will be divided into several elements, including: intercultural competence, international mindedness, identity and citizenship education. In order to achieve this, ‘intercultural and international education’ and ‘international schools’ will be identified in order to lay the groundwork for understanding international schools. Subsequently, it will provide a rationale for various elements of international schools in addition to exploring issues of concern in this area.
Intercultural & International Education
The concept of international education has developed for over a century and is often clouded by inconsistencies in terminology (Hayden & Thompson, 2008). The term ‘international education’ has been widely-used by scholars in the educational field. However, the definition still remains unclear and subject to debate. Husén and Postlethwaite (1985) provide a broad interpretation of international education as all educative efforts aimed at fostering an international orientation in knowledge and attitudes. Fraser and Brickman (1968) attempt to construct a more specific definition . Somewhat presciently, they argue that the expansion of international markets, progress of more sophisticated and efficient means of transportation and communication bringing with them possible damage to the global surrounding and human life(Fraser & Brickman, 1968). More specifically, Starr proposes that special attention should be focused on foreign language skills as well as various subjects, including history, economics and sociology (Starr, 1979). This essay does not attempt to solely define international and intercultural education nor elucidate the relationship between the two. Instead, it provides necessary background information for furthering the argument about what kind of education international schools can provide.
The term ‘intercultural’ was first introduced while international education was still being frequently discussed. Gareis defines this term as ‘situations involving two or more cultures and is used mainly to refer to relationships between people from two different cultural backgrounds’ (Gareis, 1995). However, many scholars in the field suggest the need for a distinction between ‘international’ and ‘intercultural’. Mark Heyward, for example, claimed that ‘international schools might be better conceptualized as ‘intercultural’ rather than ‘international’ in the globalized world of the early 21st century’ (Heyward, 2002). A similar argument is made by Kieran James(James, 2005). This shift in understanding within the academic field can also be witnessed in practice.
International Schools
Definition and groupings
International schools have sprung up since the 1950s as a result of the substantial increase expatriates living abroad. However, the nature of international schools and their aims have evolved considerably since that time (Heyward, 2002). Two broad categories of international schools have been identified: the traditional type and those which have more recently emerged. The origin of many of today’s international schools can be traced back to 1924, the type of schools aimed at catering for the needs of globally-mobile expatriate parents and their children might be described as the ‘traditional’ type of international school. Hayden and Thomas describes their function as ‘providing a service to a community for whom appropriate education would not otherwise be available, and catering for an essentially transient group of students whose length of stay at the school is determined by the duration of their parents’ contact locally’(Hayden & Thompson, 2008). However, there also exists a more recently emerging type which attracts affluent host country nationals. These international schools cater largely for host country nationals but offer English as the medium of instruction through curriculum different from that of the host country. However, there is more than one way of categorizing these schools since international schools exist in a diverse and changing context. How to divide these schools and according to the nature of typologies can be artitary to some extent (Hayden & Thompson, 1995). Some attempts have been made to define these schools according to their nature and typology. Gellar provides a general definition of an international school as one which ‘welcomes pupils of many nations and cultures, that recognizes that such pupils have differing aims, and actively adjusts its curriculum to meet those aims’ (Gellar, 1981). An alternative approach to making sense of the groupings came from Matthews, who distinguishes between both ‘ideology-driven’ schools(Matthews, 1988).
Four requisites
In order to better understand what exactly constitutes international schools, Terwilliger sets forth four main requisites for a school to be categorized as ‘international’. These include the enrolment of a significant number of students whose citizenship is not the country in which the school is located; a board of directors made up of roughly the same proportion of foreigners and nationals; a teaching body made up of teachers who have experienced a period of cultural adaption; and a curriculum which is a ‘distillation of the best content and the most effective instructional practices of each of the national system’ (Terwilliger, 1972).
Types of students
The students population consists largely of expatriate children. However, with the rapid growth of international schools in the twenty-first century, children of globally-mobile expatriates are no longer the only group of students. Instead, there are arguably three categories of students in these schools: the global nomad (or Third Culture Kid), the returnee and host country nationals (Hayden & Thompson, 2008).
The term Third Culture Kid (TCK) was used to refer to children who do not have a real association or sense of belong to what might be considered a ‘first culture’ (their passport country), nor to their ‘second culture’(the country in which they are temporarily living), but instead, feels most at home in a ‘third culture’ (Useem, 1976). Recently, a TCK has been described as someone who has spent a substantial period of time in his or her developmental ages outside of the parental culture (Polleck & Van Reken, 1999).
The second group, the returnee, describes children who attend an international school within their own country after returning from living somewhere else. The reason for these returnees choosing an international school in their own home country is that, having been educated outside their home country’s national education system, they would find it hard to fit back into the national system. Therefore, an international school situated in their own home country might be a good choice for those returnees (Hayden & Thompson, 2008).
Curriculum
The concept of ‘international curriculum’ in general has yet to be well defined. However, it is usually perceived as a curriculum which is not based upon any single national educational, but instead draws upon educational philosophies and methodologies from a variety of sources (Hayden & Wong, 1997). Today an increasing number of international schools offer a wide range of programs based on international curriculum, while some offer programs within the national system (Hayden & Thompson, 2008). Thompson categorizes these curricula according to four main types: exportation, which consists marketing existing national curricula and examinations abroad; adaption, wherein existing national curricula and examinations are adapted to suit the international context; integration, where best practices for a range of successful curricula are brought together into one new curriculum; and creation, where a new program is developed from first principles (Thompson, 1998). A number of different types of curricula can be found in international schools around the globe, including International General Certificate of Secondary Education (IGCSE), Advanced Placement (AP) International Diploma, etc. (Hayden & Thompson, 2008).
In the context of international education, especially study abroad programmes, many students who study abroad often derive a great deal of personal enjoyment and advantages from them. The students also believe that international experience is beneficial for them in the international labour market. More specifically, many of them feel that these experiences may help them acquire deeper insight into the place they visit as well as helping them become more adaptable, confident, open and tolerant (Rizvi, 2007). Nonetheless, there are a number of students who come back feeling disillusioned. It is noted that ‘some even have their cultural stereotypes and prejudices confirmed, perhaps even extended’. Consequently, we can argue that the outcomes differ from individual to individual. Preparing students for navigating change has become an important component in the process of curriculum reform. It cannot be emphasized enough that these initiatives cannot be fulfilled without conceptual thinking that is more systematic in nature. Intercultural Competence
Defining Intercultural Competence
In the new era of globalization, the increasing diversity of cultures requires individuals to demonstrate specific competences and capacities in order to achieve both personal fulfillment and social harmony (Intercultural Competences: Conceptual and Operational Framework, 2013). International schools are regarded as unique places to provide the education necessary for nurturing these skills. However, the scope of intercultural competences is much broader than current formal curriculum. This is part of a broad toolkit of worldviews, attitudes and abilities that young people gain for their lifelong journey’ (UNESCO, 2009). Thus, to cultivate intercultural competence is significantly crucial among their students.
Identity
Identity can be seen as socially-constructed insofar as it develops as a result of experiences in one’s own life and social communication with his or her fellows’
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